THE RUBY AND THE SAPPHIRE

Some account of the mining for stones in Burma and Ceylon should be of interest since many of the methods used are charac­teristic of native gemming. These methods are very different from those employed in the huge industry of diamond mining in South Africa. In Burma, mining by modern methods and on a large scale has been tried with varying success, but in Ceylon, only the individual digger, or a small party, works the gem gravels with simple tools to discover the stones. In Burma, various methods of mining have been employed over a great number of years. The usual methods may be classed as the Twin (or Well), the Myaw, and the Loodwin.

In the first, a round pit is dug by means of simple tools, a hoe and an iron bar being generally used, and the loose earth to a depth of 20 to 100 feet is excavated. Hauling is done by means of a home made bamboo basket, which is suspended on the end of a length of bamboo, the length varying with the depth of the pit. A basket of stones on the other end acts as a counterweight. The surface earth generally consists of a hard clay, and this is removed until the gem bearing strata is reached. This "byon," as it is called, is examined closely, and then lateral tunnels are dug so that no gem bearing earth is missed. For holding up the sides of the trenches, timber and brushwood are used; if water is struck, a simple pump made from bamboos is used for bailing. During the rainy season, the workings become flooded and the pits have to be abandoned for hillside workings.

But water is necessary for working the byon as this has to be sprayed and washed. The surface soil is also washed, water run­ning through bamboo pipes being the means employed. Such water might have to be brought from some distance, and it is frequently run over gorges and rough country to the place of work. The lighter rocks are washed away and the heavier concen-I rate, which includes the precious material, is taken from the floor of the diggings and sorted carefully after much further washing. The working of ground by surface digging only is known as the Myaw method. This was more successful in years gone by when the ground was in a virgin state. In these open workings, Home of the finest rubies in existence were found. It was here that the Nga Mauk, a famous ruby inherited by King Thebaw, was mined. It will be remembered that the British claimed this stone as part of the regalia of the fallen dynasty when they acquired Burma, but the stone was never handed over and it has not been seen publicly since that time.

The Loodwin (or Loo) method is now little used. It necessitates the digging of tunnels into the hill sides, such tunnels being fre­quently connected with one another. When a crevice in the rock strata is found, this is followed up, and sometimes it leads to a large, natural cavern. It is here that many of the fine old rubies were found, particularly in the caverns at Datton Sho and Pingu Taung. But the hazardous work, made more difficult by the sub­sidences of earth and areas of foul air, has deterred the miners from using this method of late years. As will be seen, the methods still used are all rather primitive. Simple tools are enough, and the blasting of rocks by explosives would be an exception. The old method is to light a fire near the rock and, when it is hot, cold water is thrown over the surface.

The sudden contraction splits the rock, and it can then be re­moved with a knife and hammer. Natives must have a license to mine, but this costs only 10 rupees a month. A licensee sometimes hires men so that a small party is made up, and their agreement usually involves a share in the profit derived from the sale of any stones found, after the cost of food and other incidental working expenses have been deducted. The chief mining center, Mogok, is not easily accessible. It lies about 90 miles northeast of Mandalay at an elevation of about 4,000 feet, the surrounding district being covered by ranges of mountains, some of which reach 7,000 feet in height.

Yet rubies have been sought here for many centuries, and the early kings of Burma must have obtained a number of fine stones for themselves since the country was then little known and visitors were not encouraged. Some mining is still carried on by the natives, following their old methods, although the temporary occupation of Burma by the Japanese in 1942 naturally put an end to all normal work during that period. But since the. country has begun to settle down to something approaching peaceful conditions, mining un­der license continues and stones have been found and marketed. But these are mostly small in size, and they do not obtain a high price. Good stones of size are still very rare, and for that reason alone they are very costly. There is always a ready sale for a really fine ruby, but such is seldom seen. Perhaps another reason for the scarcity of good rubies is the great demand for these stones in Burma and India. The Burmese regard the ruby as a sacred gem, and they are taught at an early age to recognize and appreciate its qualities. Their great aim in Life is to possess a valuable stone, and there is keen local competi­tion for good specimens. Mogok, in the Kathe district, remains the center of the native ruby market, and bazaars are held every fifth day in open sheds, where the stones are exhibited on brass trays. The buyer and seller sit opposite each other, and the stones on the little tables are examined eagerly. A broker frequently acts for the parties, and great secrecy is observed in bidding. This is largely done not by word of mouth, otherwise onlookers and competitors would know for how much a certain stone or parcel of stones has been bought. Offers are made by placing hands up sleeves or under jackets of the sellers; fingers are pressed, and offers are made, accepted, or rejected without a word. When a purchase has been agreed upon, the stones are tied up and sealed until payment has been made, which also takes place in secret. Before stones leave Burma, they may be sold many times between native dealers, and a broker is found invaluable in these transactions. He assists for a small percentage of the purchase price as commission. Of course, many stones are stolen, and illicit transactions take place in great se­crecy. Here it may be mentioned that the uninitiated would do well to be careful when buying stones in Burma, as elsewhere in the East, for synthetic stones are often offered as real in the most unusual places. Large quantities of synthetics in all colors, but especially red and blue, have been on the market for some time, so one must be wary when offered a fine looking stone. A synthetic ruby worth about a dollar a carat might be offered as a natural stone, which would be worth possibly $ 1,400 (£500) a carat.

Of synthetic stones, the reds and blues are by far the commonest used in mounted jewelry, and "native mounted" articles often contain such stones. We will now turn to Ceylon, an island which is rich in gem stones of many kinds, including rubies and sapphires. Since the method of mining for all stones in the island is the same, some description of native gemming there should be of interest. In gen­eral, the gem bearing soil is very rich, and many gem stones are found together, but reliable statistics about output of gems in Ceylon are impossible to obtain. The authorities can give ex­haustive details about tea, rubber, and coconuts, but the gem industry seems to be .of no official account.

Suggestions have cer­tainly been put forward in recent years that the mining might be controlled, that the native lapidaries might adopt modern methods of working, and that marketing of the cut stones might be handled so that better results are obtained, but so far, nothing very much has been done. In fact, the gem miner is quite content to pursue his occupation without official supervision, and lack of public interest suits him. Perhaps the chief reason for this is that the methods he employs do not need financing on a large scale, for he prefers to continue in much the same way as did his forerunners many centuries be­fore him.

The village diggers, who are inherently consumed with a thirst for speculation, and the Moormen dealers who purchase most of the gems from them, seem to carry on the industry fairly successfully. As an industry, gem mining in Ceylon dates back to a very re­mote period, a time in which tradition and fable are interspersed with fact. Early mariners aroused interest by their reports of the beautiful gems to be seen in Serendib, and travelers of the Middle Ages told of the wonderful sapphires and other rare stones, in eluding a ruby "one span in length, without a flaw, and brilliant beyond description," which belonged to the king of the island. Some of the earliest visitors to Ceylon for the purpose of buying gem stones were the Chinese. To them, the island was known as Pa-ou-tchow, or the isle of gems. In the year 1501, Nicolo di Conti. an Italian, said of Ceylon that it produced gems in great abundance, while a Russian traveler of about the same period wrote that agate and crystal were to be found among its other natural products.

Marco Polo, the famous traveler, described the gems of this island at some length, and he especially mentioned a ruby belonging to the king, which the emperor of China tried to purchase in vain. Marco Polo wrote that the island produced such beautiful rubies the like of which could not be procured any where else. Sinbad said that "rubies and several sorts of minerals abound, and the rocks are for the most part composed of a metallic stone made use of to cut and polish other precious stones." Under the Kandyan kings, the right of gem digging was jealously held by the crown, but later, under British rule, the monopoly was abolished.

The natives now carry on with very little official interference. A great variety of stones is found, but it would be difficult to estimate any figure for production or value. The most productive district is Ratnapura, in the neighborhood of Adam's Peak, toward the southeast of the island. Ratnapura, the "Ciiy of Gems," is situated in beautiful surroundings, glorious forests, mountains and rivers, yet it is easily accessible by train from Colombo. Most of the gem deposits are alluvial, and active mining is carried on from November to March, at other times water being too abundant to allow pit working. Nearly all the gemming is performed by poor natives, who either work their own small hold­ings, ground leased from the government, or else the ground of others, for a share of the results. The latter system is quite popu­lar, and in this event, the proprietor or his representative looks on and collects the stones as they are found. Naturally, some thieving takes place. Illicit mining is almost universal throughout the island, despite the low charges for licenses, and despite sug­gestions by the government, nothing has yet been done to regulate this age-old industry. As usual, the greatest profits go to the dealer and exporter and not to the actual miner. There are two main methods of working. In the former, the precious stones are found beneath a surface of mud, sand, and clay in a layer known as "illam," which is characterized by the presence of well worn pebbles and various heavy minerals. The natives search through this illam with a long, spiked iron rod, and the feel of the rod indicates to an experienced manipulator if a pebbly deposit has been struck.

Pit working entails the sinking of a hole about ten to twenty feet square, the sides being revetted with bamboo poles and branches. The ground is thrown up in a small wicker basket, and water is bailed out by the ubiquitous balance crane of simple con­struction, generally with a tin bucket at one end and a balancing weight of stones at the other, the same contrivance that the Burmese use in ruby mining. The illam recovered is then washed in a neighboring pit or stream, in which the washers stand with their deep, conical bamboo and rattan baskets with upturned i inis. The lighter contents are removed, and an inspection is made of the concentrates which remain. River washing is carried on during the dry months of the year. The natives stand in the river with their long, hoe-like "mamoties" with flexible handles up to twenty feet in length, scooping up the bed as far as they can reach. The illam is collected toward their feet and then, after being gathered up, is washed in baskets for the precious contents. This system of washing is not very effective since lighter stones may be overlooked and thrown away. Throughout the valleys there is evidence of old workings, and owing to the unquenchable spirit of speculation, the natives con­tinue their work persistently in the hope that they may one day suddenly strike it lucky and become rich overnight. But, as might be imagined, it all resolves itself into a bare living. The uncut stones are generally sold to Moormen dealers and lapidaries in the neighboring villages, who in turn sell the cut stones to the Colombo merchants. These often try to improve stones by various methods, such as heating, but they have not the experience which Europeans possess in this direction. The local lapidaries try to obtain as much weight as possible in their stones, with the result that many have to be re-cut for better advantage when they reach Europe or America.

The native cut stones are generally unsymmetrical in shape and the faceting is irregular. Many are too deep in p'roportion to their width. The cutting and polishing, largely in the hands of Muslims, are carried out in the open, and primitive tools are used without regard to scientific principles. After preliminary shaping, the stone-is cut with a vertically revolving metal disc on which corundum paste is used. The stone is fastened to a stick about five inches in length which, being fixed in a holder near the edge of the ro­tating disc, can be adjusted to different angles. Polishing is per formed upon a flat rotating disc, with a paste compound of ground rice and paddy husks. Besides rubies and sapphires of all colors (although not in large quantities), garnets, spinels, chrys oberyl cat's-eyes, alexandrites, moonstones, zircons, tourmalines, aquamarines, and some topaz are found. The number of gemming pits in Ceylon was given as about 2,000 in the year 1935, and the people engaged in mining and gemming as about 3,000 in the same year. Ceylon sapphires are generally pale and very often parti-colored or marked, and they never approach the beautiful deep blue stones from Cashmere (Kashmir). This district in India has pro­duced the largest and most valuable sapphires known, but for some years, very few new stones have come from this source, the only known mine still being worked by European methods being the one at Kyaungdwin. Here, some good stones were found in 1926. Cashmere sapphires, although always considered to be the finest in color, are also often flawed, parti-colored, or contain "silk." A perfect large stone is a rarity, and obtains a high price. A number of good stones have been produced in recent years from the mining district of Soomjam, in the Padar region, the area being discovered in the year 1881. Situated on the south side of a range of mountains at a height of about 15,000 feet, working is difficult, and it is possible that a rich area still remains untapped in the higher and remoter regions.

The sapphires are found as­sociated with granite and other igneous rocks, piercing crystalline schists or concentrated in pegmatites. Mining is carried out ac­cording to season; good stones are eagerly sought by dealers since (heir deep velvety luster is most attractive. Thailand produces splendid sapphires, and they are also found in Queensland, New South Wales, Rhodesia, and the U.S.A. A few in late years have also come from the Belgian Congo. But Burma, Ceylon, and Thailand produce most of the sapphires used as gems. Some of the Burmese sapphires are very beautiful and, at times, they are found in perfect qualities and colors. They are, however, often a little too dark, and this darkness becomes more pronounced by artificial light. On the other hand, some sapphires (usually from Ceylon) change to almost an amethyst color by such fight, so stones of some size and value should be carefully examined In all lights. The Burmese stones are seldom so inky blue or muddy blackish blue as the Australian stones. Sometimes these dark stones are cut into beads or in cabochon forms; the pale stones, of which many are found, are of not much use as jewel stones and they realize very low prices. Many of the Australian stones are cut and polished locally, Anakie in Queensland being the center of the mining district. Here, sapphires were first discovered in April 1876, but the early deposits are now exhausted and the mines almost abandoned. But there are probably other large fields in this area yet to be devel­oped. Absence of water and difficult working conditions (Anakie Is about 200 miles from the coast) do not attract miners, especially while gold and other minerals are in such great demand. A fine stone of 886i/2 carats was found at the Anakie fields in 1934, while in the preceding year over $11,200 (£4,000) worth of sapphires were sold from this area, chiefly to France and .Switzerland. But production has decreased in recent years. There are now fewer mining for gem stones in Australia, and the quality of the sapphires is generally of such a grade that the market for them is very limited. The most active village in the Anakie district is Iguana Flat, and here a stone of 498 carats was found, as well as a large zircon of 259 carats, in 1933. It may be noted that diamond is sometimes found associated with sapphires in the Queensland mines. Green sapphires are also mined, but other "fancy" colors very rarely. A few black star sapphires come from central Queensland, about six miles west of Ruby Vale, but only occasionally are they of good quality. Here, other sapphires of all colors are also found. New South Wales, in 1926, produced some 1,808 ozs. of rough sapphires valued at $6,770 (£2,418), although this was a bad mining year for Australia, water being scarce.

Although the U.S.A. produces a great variety of gem stones, the sapphire is one of the most important. The principal deposit is in Montana, where an English company worked the mines at Yogo Gulch until 1929. Sapphires were originally discovered in this area as far back as 1865. The stones are varied in color but bright; others are suitable only for industrial purposes. The most valuable rubies and sapphires doubtless remain in the hands of the native princes of India. They are passed on to the succeeding rulers and the treasures are seldom seen by those outside the courts. But there are some known large stones in Europe and the U.S.A. For instance, in the former Russian crown jewels there was a ruby of considerable size. This was presented to Catherine of Russia in the year 1777, having been brought originally from China by Prince Gavragin, a governor of Siberia. It was once in the possession of Prince Menzikoff. In the Mineral Gallery of the British Museum, there is a fine crystal of ruby weighing 163 carats, as well as an image of Buddha carved from one sapphire. National collections at Paris and Vienna normally contain beautiful specimens of sapphires, the largest brown stone of some 132 carats being in the Mineral Museum, Paris.

This sapphire has been called the "Wooden Spoon Seller" from the occupation of the man who found it in Bengal. The large red stone in the English crown jewels, for long re­garded as a fine ruby, is really a red spinel. A sapphire in these jew­els is of heart shape, and dates from about 1575. It was once owned by Darnley, the husband of Mary, Queen of Scots. Two of the largest and oldest sapphires are in the English Imperial Crown of State. In the center of the cross plate is a flawless stone which once belonged to Edward the Confessor, who wore it in his corona­tion ring. In the center of the back of the crown band is a brooch containing the Stuart sapphire, an oval shaped stone of about 1 1/2 inches in length, practically flawless but pale in color. This stone-was once owned by the Old Pretender. Later, it was bequeathed to George III, since when it has been worn by succeeding monarchs. The Sword of State, which is encrusted with valuable jewel stones, contains a rare yellow sapphire, while in the King's cor­onation ring is a sapphire which has been worn since the time of William IV. This sapphire is estimated to be worth about $5,600 (£2,000). There are other sapphires of historical interest. One, mounted in a ring, was thrown out of a window by Lady Scrope to the Earl of Monmouth to confirm the death of Queen Elizabeth. Mon­mouth carried the token to Scotland and presented the ring to James VI.

Two large sapphires, once owned by Charlemagne, were presented to Napoleon by the clergy of Aix-la-Chapelle. These afterwards came into the possession of the Emperor Louis Napoleon III. Among the largest star rubies and sapphires was the fine sapphire which belonged to the famous traveler, Sir Richard Francis Burton. The largest star ruby of gem quality is some 100 carats in weight, oval cabochon in form, and about 1 1/2 inches long by 1 inch wide. It was mined in Burma a few years ago and was purchased by the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, where it is on exhibition. Two fine star sapphires are also in this Museum; the Star of India, which weighs over 565 carats, and a deep purple stone known as the Midnight Star, which weighs 116 carats. These two stones came from Ceylon, and they were presented to the Museum by the late J. Pierpont Morgan.

Perhaps the best known of the older rubies is the Timur ruby. This stone has had a varied career, as the many names of some of its owners which are inscribed on its face testify. Said to weigh some 360 carats, it has been known in the East for at least six centuries, once being taken by Tamerlane from Delhi when he invaded India. It was brought from India in time for the Great Inhibition of 1851, after which it was presented to Queen Vic­toria. A violet-red stone of 18 carats, and another stone of nearly 40 carats, are in the Russian State Treasures. We have mentioned synthetic corundum, variously colored, which is produced in the laboratory for the purposes of cutting and shaping as gem material or as jewels for instrument bearings, but there is a natural impure variety of corundum, known as emery, which is largely used as an abrasive. This material was known to the Greeks, who used it in gem engraving, and it is still used in many industrial processes although another artificial material, called Carborundum, has largely superseded it. Emery is grayish-black in color; it is usually found mixed with magnetite or hematite, occurring in Asia Minor, the Urals, and in many parts of North America. Watch bearings are also often fitted with synthetic or natural small rubies. These "jewels" are, of course, of little intrinsic value, but their fitting calls for skill, and the best lever movements contain 15 or 17 of these "jewels." The term corundum comes from the Indian korund (or corind, corindon, and caroum, by which it is variously known in the East), since all the original rubies and sapphires came to Europe from India. This is the reason for the prefix "oriental" being used with many of the fancy colored sapphires. The word ruby is derived from the Latin ruber, meaning "red," the same root giv­ing us rubicelle, rubellite, and the names of many other red stones. The Roman stem rubin is obscurely related to the Latin rubeus and ruber. The word sapphire occurs in the Hebrew and Persian lan­guages, and it is derived from a Sanskrit word meaning "beloved of Saturn." It does not mean "blue," as is so often stated. The Persian is saffir, by which it has reached us through the French or Arabic safir, or the Greek sapphiros. Originally, lapis lazuli was called sapphire, since this stone was known long before sapphire was discovered. Synthetic and natural sapphires of a reddish-yellow color are sometimes marketed under the name of padparadshah (from padna meaning "lotus" and raga meaning "color"). Most of the so-called synthetic alexandrites and aqua­marines are suitably colored synthetic sapphires or spinels.